Fig. 1

Warburg effect in cancer cell metabolism: Glycolysis terminates with lactate production and secretion despite the presence of oxygen. TCA cycle enzymes shift glucose carbon towards the pentose-phosphate pathway, which produces ribose for nucleotides and NADPH for reductive biosynthesis; the hexosamine pathway to maintain glutathione levels, and methylation reactions, and glycerol synthesis for the production of complex lipids. GLUT glucose transporter, MCT monocarboxylate transporter, MPC mitochondrial pyruvate carrier, glucose-6P glucose-6-phosphate, fructose-6P fructose-6-phosphate, fructose-1,6-biP fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, DHAP dihydroxyacetone-phosphate, GA3P glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, 3PG 3-phosphoglycerate, acetyl-CoA acetyl coenzyme-A, α-KG α-ketoglutarate, Succ-CoA succinyl-CoA, OAA oxaloacetate, NAD+ oxidized nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NADH, H+ reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. With modification from [31]